This article is the first in an irregular series in which we’ll be taking a closer look at the period covered in the Ages of Conflict – Historical Companion. This supplement covers three periods of history – the ancient world, the classical world, and the Middle Ages. For our purposes, the ancient world includes the dawn of human civilization to the 8th century BC at which point many historians date the beginning of the classical age. Note that for many, the classical world includes only the civilizations of the Mediterranean, though we’re expanding the scope to include everything from the 8th century BC to the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages is typically dated from the fall of the Roman Empire in the west in the 5th century AD to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.
The Pre-History of Conflict
The known history of conflict is necessarily limited by the events passed down to us. The first evidence of rudimentary writing does not appear until circa 3300 BC and even that was limited to clay depressions used to keep track of accounting and transactions. The first writing to include phonetics rather than just symbols does not appear until about 2700 BC. The appearance of phonetics allowed scribes to pass down names and events – true history.
Thousands of years prior, early humans drew what they witnessed in their daily life. The surviving paintings, dating back to at least 40,000 years ago, are often found in caves where they are protected from the elements. The artists drew scenes of their daily life – hunting, dancing, and wildlife.
This was the Paleolithic Age, or Old Stone Age. Humanity lived in the Old Stone Age for most of its existence, a period lasting from about 3.3 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. It was during this epoch that modern humans evolved, contended with climate change, spread out across much of the world, developed stone tools, and laid the foundations of civilization.
Tools of stone and wood were developed during this period. These tools included weapons, the first of which were undoubtedly the club and spear. Spear throwers were eventually introduced to give hunters better range and to keep them further from danger. Simple bows were introduced at least 64,000 years ago and slings perhaps about the same time. These first weapons were used for hunting game as early humans lived as hunters and gatherers.
Early humans lived a nomadic lifestyle not settling down in one place for too long. They survived by following game and foraging for food as they did so. Groups were small, likely no more than extended family. An interesting result is that territory and property ownership may have been an unknown or loose concept, at least within the tribe.
The Beginnings of Conflict?
The world population was likely no higher than 6,000,000 during the Paleolithic Age. The nomadic lifestyle coupled with a small population spread out over a vast area likely means encounters and conflict were minimal.
We can only speculate as to the events that transpired when one tribe encountered another. Was there an attempt to defend territory or resources? What occurred if one of the tribes was low on food and near starvation? Did they attack the other tribe to steal food or was there a sense of cooperation for survival’s sake?
The evidence either way is slim, though not non-existent. Cave paintings in Europe dating from 30,000 years ago and 17,000 years ago appear to depict humans pierced with arrows. These are perhaps scenes from a conflict, though there is no way to be certain. Cave art from Spain dating to 10,000 years ago shows groups of warriors armed with bows in what appears to be a battle. The art may have recorded a conflict over territory or resources, or perhaps some sort of religious ceremony, though it is impossible to be certain without further context.
The Paleolithic Age ended about 14,000 years ago at which time the Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) was ushered in. Hunting and gathering remained the primary methods for collecting food, though early attempts at agriculture and animal domestication began to take place. The defining characteristic of the Mesolithic Age was the start of a transition to a sedentary lifestyle in which humans began to establish small permanent settlements.
The Mesolithic Age gave way to the Neolithic Age about 9,000 BC. The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, saw humanity fully develop agriculture domesticating wheat, barley, lentils and other crops. Domestication and herding of livestock, such as cattle and sheep, also began. The development of agriculture and domestication of animals meant that humans no longer had to remain constantly on the move and the abundance of food resulted in a rising population upwards of 70,000,000 by 4,000 BC.
The Age of Conflict
The Neolithic Age may translate to New Stone Age, though it was also the start of the age of conflict. Permanent settlements with plentiful resources were targets for those that were without. Raiding became more organized forcing defenders to develop better ways to protect what they now considered to be their property and territory. Settlements grew larger and better protected and as a result the world’s first cities began to appear at sites such as Göbekli Tepe, Jericho, Byblos, and Catalhöyük.
The escalation in conflict is evidenced by the appearance of fortifications, such as those at Jericho. By 7,000 BC Jericho was protected by a wall 6’ thick and 15’ high as well as a 30’ wide moat. Sites at Sesklo and Dimini in Greece were protected by walls built as far back as 6,000 BC. Walls surrounding a temple at Göbekli Tepe may be as old as 11,000 years. While some speculate the walls served other purposes, such as protection from flood or served as some religious function, it is just as likely the walls protected the inhabitants from invaders.
By 3,500 BC, the world was on the brink of major change. The Stone Age was at an end as humanity developed metallurgy using a blend of tin and copper to produce bronze heralding the arrival of the Bronze Age. Major cities were on the rise resulting in the first states and first civilizations across the world